Fusion energy
→ What is nuclear fusion energy?
Fusion energy has the potential to provide safe and plentiful power without creating any long-lived radioactive waste. It is an emerging type of nuclear energy production that uses the fusion reaction—what powers the sun and stars—to generate energy here on Earth. No commercial fusion energy facilities exist in the U.S., and its technologies are still being developed.
Any malfunctions in the fusion process cause the device to lose power, so there is no risk of runaway reactions. Like many common medical technologies such as PET scans, fusion systems use small amounts of well-regulated and carefully handled radioactive materials. Tritium, one of the fuels needed for fusion, is radioactive and regulated to safeguard against proliferation.
→ How does the fusion reaction work?
The sun’s energy is a result of hydrogen atoms fusing together. We can mimic this reaction by fusing two lightweight atoms together to form a heavier atom, thus releasing heat and energy. Fusion energy reactions will use two forms of hydrogen as fuel (called deuterium and tritium). When placed in a charged state of matter called plasma, these atoms will fuse together, releasing helium, high-energy neutrons, and a significant amount of energy in the form of heat. This reaction differs from fission, which splits atoms apart.
Fusion reactors can use either strong magnetic fields (magnetic confinement) or lasers (inertial confinement) to produce the high-temperature plasma needed and confine the reaction. Magnetic-based devices include spherical or donut-shaped designs called tori, tokamaks, and stellarators, and linear designs called magnetic mirrors. Inertial confinement devices fuse atoms together by compressing the fuel, typically with high-powered, extremely precise lasers. No single design has yet emerged as a clear-cut winner for producing commercial energy.
Fusion does not create any long-lived radioactive waste that needs to be stored long-term. Rather, radioactive materials produced by the fusion reaction are contained within the device, which can then be collected like medical waste and will become safe within 100 years.
→ What can fusion energy do?
Fusion energy has the potential to provide clean, plentiful power while producing no carbon emissions and only minimal radioactive used fuel. Like fission-based reactions, fusion fuel is incredibly energy dense, meaning that a small amount of fuel produces a lot of energy output. It could become a domestic and virtually inexhaustible energy source, but one that requires significant advancements before being applied.
Fusion devices are relatively safer than other forms of nuclear energy because they are completely contained and require a continuous supply of heat. If plasma meets the cool walls of the device, the reaction stops and the device shuts down—with little to no radioactivity released, and at extremely low risk to workers or surrounding communities.
→ How has fusion energy been used historically?
Although the sun’s fusion reaction is well understood from decades of science, sustaining that reaction on earth has not yet become possible. There are no commercially operational fusion energy devices anywhere in the world, but investment and experimental facilities have expanded over the past five years.
→ Who provides oversight?
Official oversight is still developing as fusion evolves but will be closely monitored at federal and state levels. The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) oversees all federal nuclear energy licensing and regulation—including technology design, safety, and some siting requirements. Radiation exposure beyond the device is unlikely during the fusion reaction, so these regulations will emphasize emergency preparedness and the safe disposal of byproduct materials.
State agencies will likely provide additional regulatory and permitting oversight from construction through to ongoing facility operations. In Wisconsin, these agencies may include the Public Service Commission, Department of Natural Resources, Department of Health Services, and others.
→ What are the challenges and opportunities?
Fusion energy faces many growth-related challenges. Researchers are still studying techniques for creating and maintaining the conditions necessary for fusion reactions to occur on Earth. Fusion energy will require components that can generate and recycle fuel, as well as materials that withstand intense heat and radiation. Technologies are needed not only to sustain plasma confinement within fusion devices, but to convert the heat generated into usable electricity.
Developing fusion energy in Wisconsin could influence workforce and supply chain needs. While the scale of these impacts is cannot be fully assessed, the U.S. nuclear energy sector is expected to grow nation-wide over the next 25 years to meet clean energy goals and increasing energy demand. Fusion energy has earned over $10 billion in private investment, indicating growing confidence in the sector. From materials to plant staffing, fusion energy advancement and its future facilities could stimulate innovation and create economic opportunities in industries like construction, skilled trades, engineering, manufacturing, business services, and cybersecurity.
→ What are the environmental considerations?
Like all nuclear energy options, fusion energy would produce zero greenhouse gases or other air pollution. Because nuclear fuel is extremely energy dense, these plants would have a comparatively small carbon footprint and produce more electricity per acre than any other energy source. Fusion is especially sustainable because it does not produce long-lived radioactive used fuel. Nuclear energy can complement other clean energy options like wind and solar by supporting grid resilience and providing consistent power regardless of weather conditions.